Principles Of Electronics is a comprehensive and concise textbook for students preparing for B. Tech, AMIE, diploma, and various other engineering examinations. It also caters to the requirements of those readers who wish to increase their knowledge and gain a sound grounding in the basics of electronics. The chapters in the book are designed as in-depth studies of the core concepts, and clearly elucidate the fundamental principles, methods, and circuits involved in electronics.
In order to determine the external characteristic, the circuit set up is as shown in Fig. As the load current increases, the terminal voltage falls due to two reasons: a The armature reaction weakens the main flux so that actual e.
Due to these reasons, the external characteristic is a drooping curve [curve 3 in Fig. Note that in the absence of armature reaction and armature drop, the generated e. The internal characteristic can be determined from external characteristic by adding ILRa drop to the external characteristic. It is because armature reaction drop is included in the external characteristic.
If the generator is run at a constant speed, some e. This small e. This process continues and the generator builds up the normal generated voltage following the O. The field resistance Rf can be represented by a straight line passing through the origin as shown in Fig. The two curves can be shown on the same diagram as they have the same ordinate [See Fig. An amount AB of the c. Since this surplus voltage is available, it is possible for the field current to increase above the value OA.
However, at point D, the available voltage is OM and is all absorbed by i Rf drop. Consequently, the field current cannot increase further and the generator build up stops. Thus in Fig.
Hence the generator will build up a voltage OM. The residual voltage will cause a current to flow through the whole series circuit when the circuit is closed. There will then be voltage build up to an equilibrium point exactly analogous to the build up of a shunt generator. The voltage build up graph will be similar to that of shunt generator except that now load current instead of field current for shunt generator will be taken along x-axis. When the series field is connected in reverse so that its field flux opposes the shunt field flux, the generator is then differential compound.
The easiest way to build up voltage in a compound generator is to start under no load conditions. At no load, only the shunt field is effective. When no-load voltage build up is achieved, the generator is loaded. If under load, the voltage rises, the series field connection is cumulative. If the voltage drops significantly, the connection is differential compound.
As the field circuit resistance is increased, the slope of resistance line also increases. When the field Fig. If the field circuit resistance is increased beyond this point say line OD , the generator will fail to excite. The field circuit resistance represented by line OC tangent to O. It may be defined as under: The maximum field circuit resistance for a given speed with which the shunt generator would just excite is known as its critical field resistance.
It should be noted that shunt generator will build up voltage only if field circuit resistance is less than critical field resistance. Here R1, R2 etc. If the total circuit resistance is R1, then series generator will build up a voltage OL. The Fig. If the total resistance of the circuit is more than RC say line OD , the generator will fail to build up voltage. Note that Fig. However, R1, R2 etc. However, in Fig. Since there is only one current that which flows through the whole machine , the load current is the same as the exciting current.
Curve 1 shows the open circuit characteristic O. It can be obtained experimentally by disconnecting the field winding from the machine and exciting it from a separate d.
It gives the relation between the generated e. Due to armature reaction, the flux in the machine will be less than the flux at no load. Hence, e.
E generated under load conditions will be less than the e. E0 generated under no load conditions. It gives the relation between terminal voltage and load current IL:. The internal and external characteristics of a d. Suppose we are given the internal characteristic of the generator. Let the line OC represent the resistance of the whole machine i. If the load current is OB, drop in the machine is AB i. Then point b will lie on the external characteristic of the generator. Following similar procedure, other points of external characteristic can be located.
It is easy to see that we can also plot internal characteristic from the external characteristic. The armature current Ia splits up into two parts; a small fraction Ish flowing through shunt field winding while the major part IL goes to the external load.
The line OA represents the shunt field circuit resistance. When the generator is run at normal speed, it will build up a voltage OM.
E generated on load is less than the e. It gives the relation between terminal voltage V and load current IL. It may be seen from the external characteristic that change in terminal voltage from no-load to full load is small. The terminal voltage can always be maintained constant by adjusting the field rheostat R automatically 3. However, there is a limit to the increase in load current with the decrease of load resistance. Any decrease of load resistance beyond this point, instead of increasing the current, ultimately results in Fig.
Consequently, the external characteristic turns back dotted curve as shown in Fig. The tangent OA to the curve represents the minimum external resistance required to excite the shunt generator on load and is called critical external resistance. If the resistance of the external circuit is less than the critical external resistance represented by tangent OA in Fig. There are two critical resistances for a shunt generator viz.
For the shunt generator to build up voltage, the former should not be exceeded and the latter must not be gone below. If we are given O. Fig 3.
Here we are given O. It is desired to find the O. Therefore, the new value of e. E2 for the same If but at N2 i Fig. Similarly, other points can be located taking different values of If. The locus of these points will be the O.
Clearly, it is the speed for which the given shunt field resistance represents the critical resistance. In other words, the speed of the generator should be higher than the critical speed.
The shunt winding can be connected either across the armature only short-shunt connection S or across armature plus series field long-shunt connection G. The compound generator can be cumulatively compounded or differentially compounded generator. The latter is rarely used in practice. Therefore, we shall discuss the characteristics of cumulatively- compounded generator.
It may be noted that external characteristics of long and short shunt compound generators are almost identical. External characteristic Fig. The series excitation aids the shunt excitation. In such a case, as the load current increases, the series field m.
The increase in generated voltage is greater than the IaRa drop so that instead of decreasing, the terminal voltage increases as shown by curve A in Fig. The series winding of such a machine has lesser number of turns than the one in over-compounded machine and, therefore, does not increase the flux as much for a given load current.
Consequently, the full-load voltage is nearly equal to the no-load voltage as indicated by curve B in Fig 3. Such a machine is called under-compounded generator. Generators In a d. This is due to the following reasons: i Continuity of service If a single large generator is used in the power plant, then in case of its breakdown, the whole plant will be shut down.
However, if power is supplied from a number of small units operating in parallel, then in case of failure of one unit, the continuity of supply can be maintained by other healthy units. Electric power costs less per kWh when the generator producing it is efficiently loaded. Therefore, when load demand on power plant decreases, one or more generators can be shut down and the remaining units can be efficiently loaded.
Therefore, if generators are operated in parallel, the routine or emergency operations can be performed by isolating the affected generator while load is being supplied by other units.
This leads to both safety and economy. When added capacity is required, the new unit can be simply paralleled with the old units. In that case a number of smaller units can be operated in parallel to meet the load requirement. Generally a single large unit is more expensive. The positive terminals of the generators are. When the load on the power plant increases beyond the capacity of this generator, the second shunt generator 2 is connected in parallel wish the first to meet the increased load demand.
The procedure for paralleling generator 2 with generator 1 is as under: i The prime mover of generator 2 is brought up to the rated speed. Now switch S4 in the field circuit of the generator 2 is closed. This is indicated by voltmeter V2. The main switch S3, is closed, thus putting generator 2 in parallel with generator 1. Note that generator 2 is not supplying any load because its generated e.
By increasing the field current and hence induced e. E , the generator 2 can be made to supply proper amount of load. Thus if generator 1 is to be shut down, the whole load can be shifted onto generator 2 provided it has the capacity to supply that load.
In that case, reduce the current supplied by generator 1 to zero This will be indicated by ammeter A1 open C. The load may be shifted from one generator to another merely by adjusting the field excitation. Let us discuss the load sharing of two generators which have unequal no-load voltages. These values may be changed by field rheostats.
The common terminal voltage or bus-bars voltage will depend upon i the e. It is generally desired to keep the bus- bars voltage constant. This can be achieved by adjusting the field excitations of the generators operating in parallel. This is achieved by connecting two negative brushes together as shown in Fig. The conductor used to connect these brushes is generally called equalizer bar.
Suppose that an attempt is made to operate the two generators in Fig. If, for any reason, the current supplied by generator 1 increases slightly, the current in its series field will increase and raise the generated voltage.
This will cause generator 1 to take more load. Since this effect is cumulative, the generator 1 will take the entire load and drive generator 2 as a motor. Under such conditions, the current in the two machines will be in the direction shown in Fig.
After machine 2 changes from a generator to a motor, the current in the shunt field will remain in the same direction, but the current in the armature and series field will reverse. Thus the magnetizing action, of the series field opposes that of the shunt field. As the current taken by the machine 2 increases, the demagnetizing action of series field becomes greater and the resultant field becomes weaker.
The resultant field will finally become zero and at that time machine 2 will short- circuit machine 1, opening the breaker of either or both machines. To consider this, suppose that current delivered by generator 1 increases [See Fig. The increased current will not only pass through the series field of generator 1 but also through the equalizer bar and series field of generator 2.
Therefore, the voltage of both the machines increases and the generator 2 will take a part of the load. Chapter 4 D. Motors Introduction D. Therefore, it is not surprising to note that for industrial drives, d. Like d. The use of a particular motor depends upon the mechanical load it has to drive.
Motor Principle A machine that converts d. Its operation is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force. The same d. Motor Consider a part of a multipolar d. When the terminals of the motor are connected to an external source of d. All conductors under N-pole carry currents in one direction while all the conductors under S-pole carry currents in the opposite direction.
Suppose the conductors under N-pole carry currents into the plane of the paper and those under S-pole carry currents out of the plane of the paper as shown in Fig. All these forces add together to produce a driving torque which sets the armature rotating. Consequently, the direction of force on the conductor remains the same. When the armature of a d. The back e. Consider a shunt wound motor shown in Fig.
When d. Therefore, driving torque acts on the armature which begins to rotate. As the armature rotates, back e. Eb is induced which opposes the applied voltage V. The applied voltage V has to Fig. The electric work done in overcoming and causing the current to flow against Eb is converted into mechanical energy developed in the armature.
It follows, therefore, that energy conversion in a d. If the speed of the motor is high, then back e. The presence of back e. Therefore, the armature current Ia is small and the back e. Therefore, the speed at which the armature conductors move through the field is reduced and hence the back e. Eb falls. The decreased back e.
Thus, the driving torque increases as the motor slows down. The motor will stop slowing down when the armature current is just sufficient to produce the increased torque required by the load. As the armature speed increases, the back e.
Eb also increases and causes the armature current Ia to decrease. The motor will stop accelerating when the armature current is just sufficient to produce the reduced torque required by the load. It follows, therefore, that back e. Motor Let in a d. Eb acts in opposition to the Fig. Limitations In practice, we never aim at achieving maximum power due to the following reasons: i The armature current under this condition is very large—much excess of rated current of the machine.
Motors Like generators, there are three types of d. The current through the shunt field winding is not the same as the armature current.
Shunt field windings are designed to produce the necessary m. Therefore, shunt field current is relatively small compared with the armature current. Therefore, series field winding carries the armature current. Since the current passing through a series field winding is the same as the armature current, series field windings must be designed with much fewer turns than shunt field windings for the same m.
Therefore, a series field winding has a relatively small number of turns of thick wire and, therefore, will possess a low resistance.
There are two types of compound motor connections like generators. When the shunt field winding is directly connected across the armature terminals [See Fig.
Therefore, shunt field in compound machines is the basic dominant factor in the production of the magnetic field in the machine. Motor Torque is the turning moment of a force about an axis and is measured by the product of force F and radius r at right angle to which the force acts i. Therefore, each conductor exerts a torque, tending to rotate the armature. The sum of the torques due to all armature conductors is known as gross or armature torque Ta. Let in a d. It is represented by Tsh.
The total or gross torque Ta developed in the armature of a motor is not available Fig. Therefore, shaft torque Tsh is somewhat less than the armature torque Ta.
If the speed of the motor is N r. The horse power developed by the shaft torque is known as brake horsepower B. If the motor is running at N r. Motor For any motor, the torque and speed are very important factors.
When the torque increases, the speed of a motor increases and vice-versa. We have seen that for a d. This is not possible because the increase in motor speed must be the result of increased torque. Indeed, it is so in this case. When the flux decreases slightly, the armature current increases to a large value. As a result, in spite of the weakened field, the torque is momentarily increased to a high value and will exceed considerably the value corresponding to the load.
The surplus torque available causes the motor to accelerate and back e. Steady conditions of speed will ultimately be achieved when back e. Illustration Let us illustrate the above point with a numerical example.
Suppose a V shunt motor is running at r. The armature resistance is 0. This will result in the production of high value of torque.
However, soon the steady conditions will prevail. This will depend on the system inertia; the more rapidly the motor can alter the speed, the sooner the e. Motors As in a d. This is expected because when current flows through the armature conductors of a d. For a motor with the same polarity and direction of rotation as is for generator, the direction of armature reaction field is reversed.
Eg whereas in a motor, the armature current flows against the induced e. Therefore, it should be expected that for the same direction of rotation and field polarity, the armature flux of the motor will be in the opposite direction to that of the generator.
Hence instead of the main flux being distorted in the direction of rotation as in a generator, it is distorted opposite to the direction of rotation. We can conclude that: Armature reaction in a d. However, in case of a d. With no commutating poles used, the brushes are given a forward lead in a d.
Since commutating poles windings carry the armature current, then, when a machine changes from generator to motor with consequent reversal of current , the polarities of commutating poles must be of opposite sign.
Therefore, in a d. This is the opposite of the corresponding relation in a d. Motors Since the armature of a motor is the same as that of a generator, the current from the supply line must divide and pass through the paths of the armature windings. In order to produce unidirectional force or torque on the armature conductors of a motor, the conductors under any pole must carry the current in the same direction at all times.
In this case, the current flows away from the observer in the conductors under the N-pole and towards the observer in the conductors under the S-pole. Therefore, when a conductor moves from the influence of N-pole to that of S-pole, the direction of current in the conductor must be reversed. This is termed as commutation. The function of the commutator and the brush gear in a d. For good commutation, the following points may be noted: i If a motor does not have commutating poles compoles , the brushes must be given a negative lead i.
For a d. When the operation of a d. Since commutating poles winding carries armature current, the polarity of commutating pole reverses automatically to the correct polarity. These are [See Fig. The following points may be noted: i Apart from armature Cu loss, field Cu loss and brush contact loss, Cu losses also occur in interpoles commutating poles and compensating windings. Since d. Motor Like a d. Motor Characteristics There are three principal types of d.
Both shunt and series types have only one field winding wound on the core of each pole of the motor. The compound type has two separate field windings wound on the core of each pole. The performance of a d. It is also known as electrical characteristic of the motor. It is very important characteristic as it is often the deciding factor in the selection of the motor for a particular application.
It is also known as mechanical characteristic. The field current Ish is constant since the field winding is directly connected to the supply voltage V which is assumed to be constant. Hence, the flux in a shunt motor is approximately constant. We know that in a d. The shaft torque Tsh is less than Ta and is shown by a dotted line.
It is clear from the curve that a very large current is required to start a heavy load. Therefore, a shunt motor should not be started on heavy load. The speed N of a. Eb in a shunt motor are almost constant under normal conditions. Therefore, speed of a shunt motor will remain constant as the armature current varies dotted line AB in Fig.
The curve is obtained by plotting the values of N and Ta for various armature currents See Fig. It may be seen that speed falls somewhat as the load torque increases. Here we given one of best pdf for basic electronics by vk mehta book.
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